THE CURRAGHS OF IRELAND

7

2 ¹/₂ in. wide at the fore-end, decreasing to a point where it ends under the shoulder splice.

The main gunwales are of squared deal, 3 by 3 in.; each is overlapped forward by the bevelled end of the shoulder or bow gunwale, at a distance of 6 ft. from the stem. The weak shoulder splice is supplemented by a cross-bar, "the centre stick", or maide droma, 2 ³/₄ by 2 ¹/₄

in., notched below at each end to fit upon the gunwale just behind the splice. The junction of these three parts is made secure by the nailing over it of a shaped shoulder key-piece. The bow gunwales meet in the median line above the stem block to which they are nailed.

The stern gunwale is a stout cross-bar curving outwards, 24 by 2¹/₂ in., partly countersunk into the ends of the lateral gunwales. Below it is a narrower added piece, 2 by 2 in., to which the ends of the five median bottom planks are nailed on the under side. The aftermost rib-frame, 17 in. below the stern gunwale, forms the lower boundary of what we may consider the equivalent of a transom stern (see Plan 2).

The framing consists of 24 rib-frames, called "hoops", set about 9 in, apart, centre to centre. To these are nailed on the outside fifteen thin planks, averaging 4 in, in width, set edge to edge; these replace the stringers of Donegal curraghs. The hoops are halved ash branches, the rounded side outer. To these the skin planking is fastened by "cot" or boat nails. The ends of the hoops are whittled down and driven into cylindrical holes bored in the gunwales. Wedging from above keeps them from slipping. Calico sheeting, made waterproof by the application of boiled tar, covers the entire hull on the outside. This substitution of cloth for hide is of long standing; in a work published in 1837¹ a curragh seen in Achil Sound is described as "covered with canvas rendered waterproof by a coating of tar and tallow".

Two thwarts are present, 7 ¹/₂ in, wide; these rest at each end upon a long fore-and-aft inner stringer, "the ribbon", 1 ¹/₂ by ¹/₂

in., nailed over the ribs, 7 ³/₄ in, below the upper surface of the gunwale. The fore thwart-the slip seat-rests loose on the

1 The Irish Tourist; or, The People and the Provinces of Ireland, p. 73-

London, 1837-

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8

lateral ribbons, immediately abaft the shoulder splice. The after thwart is fixed, nailed to the ribbons. It is further secured and held in place by a massive trapezoidal knee block nailed above against the inner side of the main gunwale and below to the thwart. Abaft each thwart is a rowlock c1eat nailed upon each gunwale. It measures 17 by 1 in. Through it and the upper gunwale below two holes are bored, 5 in, apart; into these thole pins are thrust to form a rowlock. Outside the second rowlock cleat on each side of the curragh is nailed a length of stout batten to form a protective band against wear from the frequent hauling of fishing lines.

When not at sea these curraghs are housed bottom up, in low stone-walled pens similar to those used on Achil Island.

The oars with which the men row these curraghs are of ordinary pattern. No "bull" is present and as they work free in the rowlock formed by the two thole-pins they admit of feathering-a modern innovation.

The cost is about £7 each. They are used mostly for lobster fishing and for lining as evidenced by the grooving of the protective batten on the outside of each of the second rowlocks.

B. Achil Island

Curraghs are still numerous in Achil Island. At Keel, where typical examples were measured in July 1936, over a dozen lie bottom up each Sunday when fishing is suspended. They rest protected and half hidden in the shelter of low, stone-walled pens. Owing to the sharp sheer of the bows, each shoulder splice has to be supported on a pile of three or four big boulders, while long, flat slabs are laid against each side of the stern with others resting against the fore-end to anchor the light craft fast when tearing westerly gales sweep down upon this bleak and wildly rugged treeless coast.

Two sizes of curragh are built having respectively two and three rowing thwarts; in addition each has a seat at the stern for the steersman, and as a knee rest when hauling up a lobster pot (Plan 1). A typical three-man curragh measures 20 ft. 4 in, in length, with an outside beam of 47 in, amidships, decreasing

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9

to 44 in, at the stern. Depth, 22 in.; height from the ground at the head, 35 in.; amidships, 23 in.; at the stern, 24 ¹/₂

in.

A notable advance on the designs so far described is the presence of a double gunwale frame, formed of an upper and a lower gunwale separated and keyed together on each side by seven broad and nearly vertical wooden blocks-"standards". Four of these are placed opposite the four thwarts; each is pinned into the gunwale bars, above and below, whereas the remaining three, of which two are forward in the bow region and the third abaft the third thwart, have vertical wing processes on the inner side which overlap the gunwale above and that below. As the beam of the curragh at the level of the upper gunwale is about 3 in, wider than at the level of the lower, the outer edge of the upper gunwale projects 1¹/₂ in, beyond that of the lower, thus giving a distinct slant inward and downward to this region. This feature we shall find to be characteristic of construction whenever a double gunwale frame is present.

Each gunwale, upper and lower, is made up on each side of three parts-bow section, main section and quarter section. The junction of the first two is spliced and keyed together as in the Iniskea curraghs but no athwart cross-bar is present. The quarter splice is more roughly made; its purpose is to enable a slight sheer to be given to the after-end. At the stern the after-ends of the upper and lower gunwales on the two sides are connected by straight stern gunwale bars countersunk at each extremity and nailed on. The space between them is filled in with transverse boarding and this part is left uncovered when the canvas skin is put on.

At the fore-end the ends of the bow gunwales are bevelled and nailed to a stout stem block, 6 by 2 in. This stem junction is further strengthened by being capped by a horizontal keying piece of board, triangular in shape, 7 in, along each side.

The ribs are generally doubled along the greater part of their length but in an irregular manner. On each side the ends of twenty-three ribs pass through rectangular slots in the lower gunwale and are wedged where necessary. They are either cloven or sawn laths, 1 ¹/₂ in. wide and ¹/₄ in, thick. On the outer side of these, thin boards, ¹/₄ in, thick, are fastened by copper

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12

nails, completely covering the bottom and sides as far up as the lower gunwale. Seven of these boards are disposed on each side of an unpaired median one. To give greater longitudinal strength a board, forming a primitive kelson, 3 in. wide by 2 in, thick, is nailed over the ribs along the line of the median skin plank.

The ends of the thwarts rest upon the lower gunwales and each is supported below by a stout median vertical strut of which the lower end rests in a socket cut in a stout shoe nailed upon the kelson. In addition, each thwart is tied to the upper gunwale by means of an L-shaped iron knee (Pl. II,fig. 3).

The calico cover, which is single, may be put on either in three longitudinal lengths or in a number of transversely running widths. The raw edges are concealed under a narrow marginal batten nailed along the upper outer edge of the upper gunwale after tarring. Boiled tar is used for waterproofing.

According to size the cost varies from £5 to £9.

Propulsion. Like the curragh men elsewhere the Achil men row double-handed with two cars; a pair of rowlock cleats are fitted on the gunwales a little abaft each thwart. A pair of thole pins are fitted in holes in each of these cleats.

The oars, 10 ft. in length, are notably more powerful than usual, with shouldered blades 40 in. long by 3 in, wide.

100. North Mayo Curraghs

On the north coast of Mayo the type of curragh in use differs notably from those on the west coast. Its distribution stretches from Ballycastle to Broadhaven, both included. East-ward of Ballycastle fishermen look askance at curraghs, while to the westward, at Broadhaven, we find a commingling of this type with that of Iniskea.

The North Mayo curragh runs from 21 to 23¹/₂ ft. in length, with a beam of 4 ft. amid ships and a depth of 25 in. The frame-work is well developed, having a double gunwale of the Achil type-each gunwale in three spliced sections, but instead of the bottom being completely boarded, the stringers, twenty-three in number amidships and averaging 2 in, in width, are

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13

spaced apart from ¹/₂ to & in. The ribs are hazel half-hoops, fitted as in Iniskea curraghs; another point of resemblance is the presence of a long, curved stem block, 17 by 1¹/₄

in. Crossing the hull, their ends resting on the lower gunwale, are three fixed thwarts, one loose thwart, a steersman's thwart (abreast the quarter splice) and a cross board at the stern, which is similar in form to the Achil one.

Propuhion. True oars are used, each 16 ft. long, working between paired thole-pins. To protect the loom from wear, a board, 20 in. long and 4³/₄ in, wide, is nailed on each of two opposite sides, between points 34 and 54 in. from the grip.

When the crew go net-fishing the fourth thwart is removed to make room for the nets. Otherwise either three or four hands may row, single-handed and alternate, one on each thwart.

The centre of the North Mayo curragh region is Belderrig, where I counted fifteen curraghs laid up on the beach. One Iniskea curragh had come from Broadhaven to fish lobsters. The crew of two rowed double-handed, with oars (called "paddles") having triangular " bulls" working on single thole-pins.

CONNEMARA AND THE INISBOFIN ISLANDS

The fishermen of the Connemara mainland and the offshore islands in common with their fellows elsewhere on the west coast are noted for their daring. Formerly, besides their curraghs, they possessed a number of open boats built of wood, but in a terrible storm a few years ago, almost the whole fleet perished, with the loss of many lives. The only curragh out that night came safely to shore and to-day the remaining men, still dispirited by the tragedy, have fallen back upon the cheaply built and easily handled curragh as the most useful and safe craft for inshore fishing.

A notable event in local history was the capture in June 1875 of an immense squid by the crew, three in number, of an Inisbofin curragh. The men had just shot their spillets (long lines) when they saw a large whitish object on the surface; seagulls circled overhead in curious troops. The men rowed

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14

toward it and found it to be a squid of gigantic size¹. They succeeded in cutting off one of its two tentacular arms-30 ft. in length. Startled by this attack, the huge creature made off in a flurry on the surface. The curragh followed and the men managed to cut off the second of the long arms. Eventually they so crippled it by hewing off the remaining and shorter arms that in spite of the threshing and struggling of the body part, they managed to sever the head from the trunk. Some of the fragments are now in the Dublin Museum. The powerful beak measured about 4 in, across.

The curraghs used in Inisbofin, Inishark and Inisturk and in the small fishing harbours on the mainland, such as Ross-a-dilisk and Renvyle, are usually of the three-thwart type; in length they range between 16 and 18 ft., with a beam amid-ships of 51 in. including the gunwale beading; depth, 20 in. The height from the ground of the stem head is 44 in., dropping to 25 in, at the shoulders. This is continued as far as the second or quarter gunwale splice whence it rises from ³/₄ to 1 in, to the stern. (See Pl. I, fig. 2, and Plan 3.)

As will be seen from the figures, the design bears a close resemblance to that of Achil. Both have a double gunwale frame, spliced at two places on each side; three thwarts are present and the bottom is fully planked as in wooden boats.

The principal characteristics of this design distinguishing it from that of Achil are the following:

(a) The standards between the upper and lower gunwales are more numerous. On each side are three in the bow section with seven abaft the shoulder splice, which is strengthened by the insertion of a massive block standard (PI. 1, fig. 2). The bow standards and the alternate ones on each side of the waist are rectangular in section, and fit by means of end-pegs into holes in the two gunwales, upper and lower; the others are "halved" into the gunwales.

(b) The stem is formed of a subtriangular block, sloping gently towards the curve of the bottom; it is intercalated between the fore-ends of the upper and lower bow-gunwales,

1 Zoologist, June 1875 and Tryon's Manualof Conchology, I, 77. 1879

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15

while beneath is a semicircular block to which the fore-ends of the principal stringers are nailed. Cross boarding of triangular outline covers the stem angle to a distance aft of 14 in, and serves to key the bows together.

(c)

The stern consists of two straight gunwale bars, held apart by two square-sided standards. The end of the upper gunwale on each side projects a couple of inches beyond the side gunwales and the outer of the angles thus formed is occupied by a filling piece. On the after side the stern gunwale frame is planked across vertically to form a vertical transom stern. The skin boards on the bottom, after passing the last of the rib-frames, turn obliquely upwards to be nailed to the underside of the lower gunwale.

(d) In Inisbofin and the other islands the two main thwarts are strengthened by the addition of wooden knees; on the mainland, these are replaced by vertical cylindrical struts.

(e) The ribs consist of about forty closely set oak laths, 1¹/₄ by ⁵/₈ in.; the ends pass through the lower gunwale and are then cut off flush. Wedges driven in from below prevent displacement.

(f) The bottom or skin planking, called "boards", is without a kelson and the fixed thwarts have no median supporting strut. The boards are thirteen in number, six on either side of a broad median plank, 9 in, wide; the others average 4 ¹/₂ in, wide.

(g) The fabric cover is in two layers; the inner, put on in transverse widths, is of coarse material such as sacking. After the fitting on and the nailing of the edges to the outside of the upper gunwale, a coat of tar is applied. A few days later the second or outer layer, made from fine calico ("baffity"= baffetas), is put on and painted over with boiled tar or else a mixture of pitch and tar. Finally a strong protective batten or rather band, called the

"ribbon", is nailed over the edges of the double cover, both along the sides and around the stern. (PI. II, fig. 2.)

(h) A pair of rowlock cleats, the "ledges", are fitted on the upper gunwale a little way abaft each thwart as in Achil curraghs, but here a single thole-pin passes through each instead of two and is provided with a stout socket, the "thimble", nailed upon the lower gunwale in which its foot rests.

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26

(i) The oars are what may be termed bull-oars as each has a pivoting block or "bull" attached to one side of the squared region of the loom. Here it is of a characteristic form found nowhere else, the outer angle being rounded, while the two basal ones are prolonged into " lugs " by which they are lashed to the loom. Each oar is 10 ft.in length.

Amulet. A small bottle filled originally with holy water but often found empty is invariably suspended by a string from some part right in the bows. It is a sacred amulet against misfortune.

These curraghs are never used under sail.

The cost is from £9 to £10 each.

THE ARAN ISLANDS

The Aran islanders employ the curragh to a greater extent than any other coast folk in Ireland with the possible exception of the Dingle and Blasket men. To the people of Aran the harvest of the sea is infinitely more precious than that of their inhospitable land, the curragh has always been the only type of vessel obtainable within their terribly restricted means. Their wind-swept isles are bare of trees and there are people there who have never set eyes on anything bigger than a stunted bush. But withies and hide formerly, and to-day imported laths, calico and tar, suffice for the building of serviceable craft, which in the hands of experienced men are the equal and in certain respects the superior of any type of open boat so far as the modest needs of these simple people are concerned.

In the chaotic centuries that followed the Age of the Saints, when the flickering light of the old learning came nigh to extinction, curragh navigation suffered eclipse. In size if not in constructional features these craft appear to have degenerated. Probably there was no true renaissance till last century, indeed, so recently as 1853 we find C. H. Hartshornet¹ stating that "the curach of Aran. . .is about eight feet long, with one square and one pointed end, capable of carrying three people".

1 Early Reminiscences of the Great Isle of Aran, pp. 292-3.

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He adds:"Such is the dexterity with which it is usually managed, that it will land from ships in distress through the roughest breakers, and cross over to the main, when vessels of every other class are unserviceable." Incidentally we learn that the covering continued to be of cow-hide, for he mentions that the curraghs were covered with the same material, cow-hide, as the peculiar skin-sandals used by the islanders.

Back in the early twelfth century, Giraldus Cambrensis had already described the use in this locality of quite small skin-covered curraghs. In a passage in his Topographia Hiberniae, III, 26, he relates the adventures of a ship's crew in the words of the men themselves.

Some sailors told me [says Giraldus] that having once been driven by a violent storm during Lent to the northern islands and the unexplored expanse of the Sea of Connaught, they lay for shelter off a small island. Soon after the storm abated they noticed a small skiffrowing towards them. It was narrow and oblong and made of wattled boughs, covered with the hides of beasts. In it were two men without any clothing except broad belts round their waists. They had long yellow hair, like the Irish, falling below their shoulders. Finding that the men were from some part of Connaught and could speak the Irish language, the sailors took them on board. They said that they had never before seen a ship built of timber.

Another old reference to the curraghs of Aran is quoted by Hartshorne (op. cit. p. 293) from the Vita apud Colgan, p. 711, where he says: "And one of the martyrologies of Endeus describes the currach of the Isle of Aran thus:

Erat enim in istis partibus, eo aevo, quoddam navigii genus usitatum, ex viminibus contextum, et bovinis coriis contectum; quad Scotica lingua Curach

appellatur."

And then Hartshorne adds: "This reputed saint was accustomed to order his monks to go into the naked framework of the vessel, and if the water came in upon them, it was a sign that they had contracted some earthly stain."

Synge, the dramatist, has given an account of a trip in an Aran curraght so vividly written and so enlightening on the way a curragh is managed in heavy weather that I cannot refrain from quoting it at length. Many years ago I had a somewhat similar adventure in a Sheephaven curragh and I can

1 Synge, J. M., The Aran Island's, pp. 97-8. Dublin and London, 1907.

MM 2

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vouch for the absolute accuracy of Synge's description and in particular of the clever manoeuvre which is executed to avoid pooping.

Synge writes:

We set off. It was a four-oared curagh, and I was given the last seat so as to leave the stern for the man who was steering with an oar, worked at right angles to the others by an extra thole-pin in the stern gunnel.

When we had gone about a hundred yards they ran up a bit of a sail in the bow and the pace became extraordinarily rapid.

The shower had passed over and the wind had fallen, but large, magnificently brilliant waves were rolling down on us at right angles to our course.

Every instant the steersman whirled us round with a sudden stroke of his oar, the prow reared up and then fell into the next furrow with a crash, throwing up masses of spray. As it did so, the stern in its turn was thrown up, and both the steersman, who let go his oar and clung with both hands to the gunnel, and myelf, were lifted high up above the sea.

The wave passed, we regained our course and rowed violently for a few yards, when the same manoeuvre had to be repeated. As we worked out into the sound we began to meet another class of waves, that could be seen for some distance towering above the rest. When one of these came in sight, the first effort was to get beyond its reach. The steersman began crying out in Gaelic "Siubhal, siubhal" ("Run, run"), and sometimes, when the mass was gliding towards us with horrible speed, his voice rose to a shriek. Then the rowers themselves took up the cry, and the curagh seemed to leap and quiver with the frantic terror of a beast till the wave passed behind or fell with a crash besides the stern.

It was in this racing with the waves that our chief danger lay. If the wave could be avoided, it was better to do so, but if it overtook us while we were trying to escape and caught us on the broadside, our destruction was certain. I could see the steersman quivering with the excitement of his task, for any error in his judgement would have swamped us.

We had one narrow escape. A wave appeared high above the rest and there was the usual moment of intense exertion. It was of no use, and in an instant the wave seemed to be hurling itself upon us. With a yell of rage the steersman struggled with his oar to bring our prow to meet it. He had almost succeeded, when there was a crash and rush of water round us. I felt as if I had been struck upon the back with knotted ropes. White foam gurgled round my knees and eyes. The curagh reared up, swaying and trembling for a moment, and then fell safely into the furrow.

This was our worst moment, though more than once, when several waves came so closely together that we had no time to regain control ofthe canoe between them, we had some dangerous work. Our lives depended upon the skill and courage of the men, as the life of the rider or swimmer is often in his own hands, and the excitement of the struggle was too great to allow time for fear.

I enjoyed the passage. Down in this shallow trough of canvas that bent and trembled with the motion of the men, I had a far more intimate feeling of the glory and the power of the waves than I have ever known in a steamer.

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21

Aran curraghs run in sizes denominated by the number of rowers accommodated-two, three or four as may be, each man rowing two oars. All are constructed upon the same plan of low narrow hull, sharply sheered bows, and low transom stern.

The gunwale frame on each side is here in two sections only -a long after section, horizontal, and a fore section forming the bow region which is spliced on at an obtuse angle of about 160-165 degrees, thereby giving a straight sheer of 15-20 degrees from the horizontal main gunwale.

The after-ends of the gunwale frame are closed in by a vertical transom, consisting of two fairly broad boards, upper and lower, separated by a space of about 3 in. The upper board is bowed weakly on its upper edge, with the lower one bowed similarly along its lower edge. The upper and lower gunwales are pinned respectively to the upper and lower stern boards by having their extremities thinned down to stout, square pegs which are thrust through holes made in the ends of the two boards.

Stringing the gunwale frame together are the thwarts and mast partner which are nailed upon the lower gunwale and steadied by L-shaped knees nailed above to the inner side of the upper gunwale and below to the thwarts.

The bottom is formed of a latticework of laths which cross one anotherr at right angles.The inner laths are transversely disposed and form the rib-frames; they are spaced about 8 in, apart and their ends fit into holes bored through the lower gun-wales. The outer layer of laths, wider but thinner, run longitudinally and form the stringers. At the stern the ends of the principal stringers are nailed to the under edge of the lower stern board while at the fore-end they are nailed to the sides of a vertical board set on edge to function as a stem board.

The intersections of the latticework are nailed together; in former times they were tied together with thongs or with cord.

Covering all is the canvas skin, of one or two layers of tarred cotton-cloth.

The bottom and bilges are gently curved transversely; longitudinally the bottom is also curved throughout its length, but the curve along the middle third is so slight as to be hardly

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22

discernible. The forward third sweeps up in a long deep curve to meet the sharp stem, whereas the after third is much more lightly curved as the stern is much lower than the head and with barely half the depth found amidships.

Construction. The lower gunwales are laid down first, right side up, with the bow region supported at the right height upon a trestle (PI. III, Eg. 1). The thwarts are then nailed on and the lower stern board mortised in position. These act as horizontal girders. The upper gunwale is put together in the same way and superposed upon the lower at a distance apart of about 6 in, by the interposition of short stanchions, the standards, along the sides, and by the fitting on of the upper stern board and the broad vertical stem board.

When complete this gunwale frame is turned upside down, supported at mid-length and at the head on blocks. It is now ready for the bottom to be put in. First, the rib-frames are placed in position, curved to the desired angle; the ends of each inserted into holes in opposite lower gunwales. Last of all the stringers are nailed on (PI. III, fig. 2 and Pl. VII, fig. 1); as already mentioned, only a few are attached to the stem board; at the stern about half the number of stringers are nailed to the lower stern board; the ends of alternate laths are left free. The calico cover is put on as in Donegal.

All that remains is to turn the curragh right side up and fit a thole-pin in a hole bored through the centre of each of the short rowlock cleats which have been already affixed to the upper gunwale. In large curraghs a perforated mast thwart (mast partner) and a mast shoe are fitted in the bow region.

Equipment

is of the simplest-a pair of oars for each man and an extra one for the steersman, are present in all curraghs. In large ones a short mast hoisting a low and relatively long lug sail is set right in the bows (PI. II, fig. 1).

The form of the 10 ft. oars is similar to that of Connemara except that the bull is triangular in shape.

The sail is without shrouds or stays. Apart from the halliard, the only ropes controlling it are the tack which is led to a point near the stem, and the sheet, carried aft to be passed around the last thwart.

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23

Besides being used in fishing and the collection of kelp, the larger curraghs are employed in lighterage work (Pl. IV, fig. 1), carrying cargo and passengers to and from the small cargo steamers that ply to Galway and coastwise to other mainland ports. A medium-sized curragh (three-man) is reputed to carry about 30 cwt., while a four-man size should carry 2 tons.

These curraghs are easily transported on land by their crew who carry them inverted and stern foremost, supported upon their shoulders, one man under each thwart, their heads and shoulders hidden beneath the downturned boat and their hands resting on the inner side of the gunwales or grasping the thole-pins. When not in use they are placed bottom up, the sides carefully supported and also held down by boulders.

Dimensions. A two-man curragh ranges between 15 and 16 ft. in length; a three-man one from 19 to 20 ft., and a four-man one from 22 to 25 ft. The beam varies between 3 and 3¹/₂ ft.amidships where it is about 1-1¹/₂ in, wider than the stern. Depth, from 26 to 27 in.

The gunwales are scantlings from 2 ¹/₂ to 3 in, wide by 2 in. deep. The ribs number 22 in two-man curraghs, and 30 or 31 in three-man ones. In the older ones they are half-hoops of oak; in newer ones sawn laths, 1 ¹/₂ by ¹/₂ in., spaced apart 5¹/₂ in.

The stringers, spaced variably from ³/₄ to 1 ¹/₄ in, apart, are wider in the three lying in the median line (2-2¹/₄ in.) than the outer ones which are mostly about 1 ¹/₂

in. wide.

The gunwale standards or stanchions always number three in the bow region where they are of spindle form; along the main gunwale frame they vary from six to seven in the larger size and in the small ones usually five-these are rectangular in section.

Other dimensions are indicated on Plan 4.

The ends of the thole-pins rest free on the lower gunwale, as no thimbles are provided. Two holes for steer-car thole-pins are provided in the upper transom board at the stern.

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THE COAST OF CLARE

Curraghs continue a vigorous existence in every sheltered fishing cove guarded by the frowning sea-cliffs that tower to dizzy heights along this dangerous but lovely coast of county Clare, now becoming a favourite playground of the Irish people.

Quilty and Kilkee are the chief centres; some curraghs are also found in use at Kilrush and Scattery Island. As is to be expected from the fact that the curragh men fish in the same great bay and by the same methods as the Aran islanders, the Clare curragh differs only in details from that of the Aran Islands. Possibly the Clare craft are more carefully finished, for the Clare men to-day are more in contact with the outside world; as they often let their curraghs in summer to visitors for fishing excursions, they find it profitable to pay attention to a trim and well-finished appearance.

The men's preference in the past for curraghs as against all wood-built boats was due in large degree to the same factor as in Aran-lack of timber in the coast region which is similar in geo-logical character to that of the Aran Islands. A story told to Dr A. C. Haddon some 40 years ago illustrates this. A Clare fisher- man reputed to be a sceptic in regard to miraculous happenings was tackled one day by the Parish Priest. "Do you disbelieve in the miracles accepted by the Church ? " said the Father. " No, Father," was the reply; " I believe them all right, barring one; you tell us that when our Lord was passing by, Zaccaeus climbed into the branches of a tree to get a sight of him. But Father, how could a man do this? There never was a tree big enough to hold a man!"

Here and in Kerry the Gaelic term curach for a curragh is replaced by naomhóg, pronounced naevog; in Anglo-Irish, it is termed a canoe.

The principal differences of construction as compared with the Aran design consist of the following points, shown in Plan 5

(a) A straight, nearly vertical stem; the curved Aran stem board is replaced by a thick wooden stem strut, joining the fore- ends of the upper and lower bow-gunwales; this strut does not

THE CURRAGHS OF IRELAND

25

extend below the lower gunwale, so that the curve into the bottom begins abruptly below the lower gunwale.

(b) The stern frame curves outwards; instead of two deep vertical boards as in Aran, it consists of two outwardly curved bars, countersunk into the upper side of the ends of the side gunwalesinsteadofthelatter beingmortisedintothestern boards.

(c) A loose seat across the stern is present for use when hauling lobster pots aboard.

(d) Instead of the after-ends of the stringers being nailed against the lower unit of the stern frame, they are here mortised obliquely into the lower cross-bar. Only the ends of the three median stringers, which, as at Aran, are broader than the others, pass through this bar and show upon its upper surface.

(e)

A strong batten, I in, wide, called the "bulwark", is nailed along the outer horizontal surface of the upper gunwale between the thole-pin cleats and also around the stern. This is a refinement present in order to save the nets from catching on the ends of the thole-pin cleats (the "rowing-boards").

The general dimensions of these curraghs and the number and arrangement of the ribs and stringers are approximately as in Aran curraghs. In the examples measured at Kilkee there were twenty-nine oak lath rib-frames 1¹/₈ by ¹/₄

in. and twenty-three stringers of thin deal, 1¹/₄ in, wide, except the three median ones which were from 2⁷/₈ to 3 in, in breadth.

Three cross-bars resting on short side-cleats (PI. V, fig. 2) serve as foot-rests, one abaft each thwart.

Regarding oars and gunwale fittings, slight divergences are seen when compared with Aran. The oars are of the same dimensions, but the "bull", here called the "oar-block", has its angles rounded, and instead of the thole-pin resting free on the lower gunwale it is provided with a socket as in the Connemara curraghs.

These curraghs are not normally used under sail, but a short mast and lugsail have recently been added in one or two instances at Kilkee.

They are kept bottom up when ashore, supported under each

shoulder on a pile of three or four stones. Others rest against the stem and stern; this boulder support is termed “the stage”

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26

Kilkee curraghs are made by Mr Marrinan, the village wheelwright of Cuisheen, a hamlet outside the town. One was under construction at the time of my visit. The way the frame is put together is shown clearly on Pl. V, fig. 1. A series of stout timbers resembling railway sleepers is partially sunk into the ground at definite distances apart. Into these "stops" are driven, marking the width desired for the lower gunwale frame. This part is constructed first, about a couple of inches narrower, across the hull, than the upper, here called the "top frame", the lower being the

"under frame". After the thwarts are nailed in place, the upper gunwale is fitted, the distance separating it from the lower being regulated by the length of the short stanchions fitted between. In the bow region these are cylindrical rods, four on each side; along the sides they are rectangular and as wide as the gunwales, with two others at the stern. All have a peg at each end to fit into holes bored in each gunwale. The overall width of the upper gunwale frame is regulated by a series of four notched bars, the "models". After this framing is completed by the fitting together of the two gunwales, it is turned over and the ribs and stringers fitted in position.

When the whole framing is finished, if it be insufficiently curved at either end to suit the owner's fancy, further curve is obtained by turning the curragh bottom up, supported on wooden blocks at appropriate intervals, but without any for the end region (or regions) which it is desired should be further curved. Weights (stones) are attached to the outer extremity of the unsupported section until enough curve is obtained. To prevent the frame from springing back to its original curvature, the heights of the stone piles of the "stage" are so regulated as to keep the curves correct. If by any chance they do spring back the weighting procedure is repeated.

Deal is used for the gunwales, stringers and oars; oak for the ribs, elm for the bow-frames, and sally wood for the knee

Dimensions of a typical Clare curragh. Length overall, 17 ft 8 in.; beam, amidships (outside), 46 in., at stern 34¹/₂ ( 2 in. less on lower stern bar); depth amid ships, 22¹/₄

in. Heigh from ground: at stem, 34 in.; amidships, 23 in.; at stern 25 in.;

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28

distance between upper and lower gunwale, 7 in. Number of rib-frames, from twenty-nine; of stringers, twenty-three; of gunwale-frame stanchions, four in bow section, seven in main section, two in stern frame; oars, 10 ft. long.

The River Shannon

Except at the seaward end of the Shannon estuary-principally at Scattery Island-no curraghs are now to be found on the River Shannon. Their disappearance must, however, be of comparatively recent date, for W. S. Wakemanx mentions in a book published in 1842 that curraghs "formed of wattles covered with cowhides are common above Lough Ree", a locality very far inland and approximately at the centre of Ireland.

Another record takes us back to the troublous days of Queen Elizabeth. In 1602 the Irish leader O'Sullivan Beare, when in flight before the troops of the Earl of Thomond, was held up on coming to the Shannon, just north of Lough Derg. No means were available for crossing the river; retreat seemed effectually cut off. In this emergency the leader had resort to the expedient employed by Caesar in Spain in somewhat similar circumstances. The chronicler of this historic retreat, P.O'Sullevan Beare, has told the story in Latin." Apart from the vivid picture which it draws of the courage and endurance of the little band of fugitives, the details of curragh construct are so valuable that it cannot be omitted. The translation passage is as follows:

O'Sullivan was in the gravest danger since he could not cross the river, here wide and deep; the enemy had removed all skiffs and boats and threatened to visit the severest penalties upon any boatman who should ferry.him across. The strength of the soldiers was also failing for lack of food. Deep despair filled he hearts of all. At this critical juncture my father, Dermot O'Sullivan, declared that he would soon build a boat and also satisfy the soldiers' hunger

1 Three Days on the Shannon, p. 35 Dublin 1852

2 Historia Catholicae Iberniae Compendium, Ulyssipone (Lisbon), 1621 tom. 3, lib- 7, c. IX., fol. 190, 191

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Next day, which was the seventh of January, on the instructions of Dermot, they betook themselves to Brosnach wood, very dense and therefore a safe refuge, and surrounded themselves with a rampart constructed of tree trunks with a small ditch on the outer side. In two days they built two boats of osiers and timber; twelve horses were killed and their hides used to cover the boats, while their flesh was eaten by all except O'Sullivan, Dermot, and Dermot O'Huallachan. The boat which Dermot designed was built in the following way: Osiers fixed in the earth by their thicker ends and bent back to the centre towards one another, were bound in place with cords and these formed the hull of the vesscL To this stout wooden gunwales [solida tabula statumina] and thwarts inside were added. The exterior was covered with the hides of eleven horses; oars and thole-pins were also fitted. The bottom, because of the nature of the material and for the purpose of avoiding rocks and jagged points, was flat. The length was 26 feet, the width six and the height five except at the prow which was raised a little higher to throw off the waves.

The construction of the second boat was in the hands of O'Mallev's horsemen. It was made of osiers without crosspieces [thwarts]; the bottom was shaped like a circular shield and the sides were much deeper than the bottom required. A single horse-hide was sufficient to cover the bottom.

These boats were carried by night on the soldiers' backs to the Shannon at Port-a-tulchain [now Portland] and in them O'Sullivan began secretly to transport his men across. Ten of O'Mallev's soldiers boarded their boat. But the vessel being both small and overweighted by its useless superstructure, foundered with the men in midstream. Dermat's boat, which would hold 30 men at a time, carried the others across in safety, the horses swimming behind at the ends of halters tied to the stern.

COUNTY KERRY

In the Dingle peninsula and in the Blasket Islands the curraghs that go fishing from the many little harbours in this district are the largest, the most elegant, the most beautifully proportioned and the most carefully made of all surviving types. Every part harmonizes; they ride the water more lightly than the sea-fowl yet are strong enough to battle successfully with the wild Atlantic gales that torment this coast in winter.

Although they are used almost exclusively for fishing and communication with the mainland, it is comparatively recently that the Blasket islanders began to use them as generally as do the mainland folk, for the Blasket fisherman, Tomás O Crohan, in his autobiography The Islandman¹

repeatedly refers to the large wooden seining boats in use in his early manhood both in the Blaskets and at Dunquin. He describes (op. cit. pp. 203-5)

1 Translated by Robin Flower, London, 1934-

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the coming of the first "canoe" as the curragh is termed in Anglo-Irish:

Somebody said one day that two of the islanders had gone to a fair in Dingle, and that they had bought a canoe from a man when they were drunk. Before long we saw her coming, and we marvelled at her. The women whose husbands were in her began a long, soft musical lament when they saw the quill of a boat that they were in.. . . A day or two after this. . . what should I see but this very canoe, I thought, . . . full of some objects which they were throwing into the sea.. . . But it wasn't the canoe the two men had bought at all, for that one was in the Island creek.

The second canoe was from Dingle.

The things I had seen thern throwing into the sea were pots to catch lobsters, the Blasket people were as strange to that sort of fishing tackle as any bank clerk at that time. Not much of the year had gone before there were four Dingle canoes fishing lobsters round the Blasket after this fashion.

...When the people found out how it was done, the two who had bought the canoe put pots into her. They fished for a year-the only boat from the Island- and made money. Next year off went the crews, racing one another to get canoes, and they were difficult to come by, for very few were being built. Every new one cost from eight to ten pounds....Merchants from Dingle used to buy the lobsters.... They made an excellent fishery, for the seine fishing had failed by this.

Eventually the two seine boats were seized at Dingle for arrears of rent and since then curraghs are the only fishing craft owned by the islanders.

Even at Dingle the employment of curraghs appears to be of comparatively recent introduction, for Holdsworth¹ writing in 1874, says curraghs have been in use at Dingle only for about 25 years; he adds "but are of longer standing on the coast between Dingle and the Clare side of Galway Bay". He gives the cost at £5, and the size as about 20 by nearly 4 ft., with a crew of four men.

To-day the usual size is greater. It averages 25 ft. in length by a beam (outside) of 4 ft. 6 in.; depth amid ships, 23 to 24 in.; three men are now considered a suficient crew. The type is a refinement of that of the Aran Islands. It owes the remarkable elegance of the form which is its outstanding characteristic to two principal features: (a) The gunwale sheer curves sweetly fore and aft. No ungainly angular break occurs at the after-end of the bow region, as in other types. Similarly

I Holdsworth, E. W. H. H., in Deep-sea Fishing and Fishing Boats, PP- 3 80-1,

1874-

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in the after region, the quarter gunwales are given a similar but less emphatic sheer, in place of the straight run seen in most other types. The bottom curves up correspondingly, so that when the curragh floats light,both ends, gracefully sheered, rise clear of the water, there is practically no straight run along the bottom, in profile it has the form of a long and gently curved arc. (b) Unlike other curraghs where the stern is little less beamy than amidships, the Dingle curraghs narrow in rapidly abaft the last thwart. This reduces the stern transom to less than half the midships beam. (c) The entrance is un-usually fine, for the rib frames in the bow region between the head and the shoulder splice, instead of being roundly curved as usual, are bent at mid-length so sharply as to form an acute angle, and give the appearance outwardly of a sharp "cutwater".

A 25 ft. curragh is fitted with four rowing thwarts, 3 ft. 10 in, apart. Two feet forward of the first is another thwart, per-forated at the centre to serve as a mast partner, for these curraghs carry sail (Pl. VI, fig. 1).

The gunwale frame is in three parts: (a) the main or side frame, (b) the curved bow gunwale frame, and (c) the stern frame. Each is formed of an upper and a lower gunwale, as in Aran curraghs, held apart by nineteen struts, 6¹/₂

in. long, ten broad rectangular ones are fitted at equal intervals along the waist, with five cylindrical ones in the bow region and four at the stern. As the beam across the upper gunwales is greater than that across the lower ones, the dividing struts slant ob-liquely downwards and inwards, and when the canvas cover is put on this part of each side slopes gently inwards. The beam outside, amidships, is 4 ft. 6 in., decreasing gently to 4 ft. 2 in, at the last thwart. Abaft this it draws in rapidly till at the stern it is only 2 ft. wide. At the bow shoulder the usual type of splice is used, but more carefully and strongly made than usual.

The number of rib frames is unusually great—thirty-three in the waist region, with ten more in the bows. The average distance apart is 5¹/₄ in, but in the places where the rowers' feet may reach the bottom, a number of short accessory frames are added to strengthen these parts.

The ends of the full-length ribs pass through oblique slots

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in the lower gunwales and may or may not be keyed by means of a cotter pin, on the surface of the gunwale. If not keyed they are cut off flush.

The stringers consist of nine planed white deal laths, 1 ³/₈ in.wide, on either side of a broad median board or keel-plate, 4 ¹/₂, in, wide. For a distance of about 4 ft. from either end this kee1-plate is sawn down the centre and the two halves reduced slightly in width, in order that they may be more easily bent at the end curves. At the stern, the ends of the principal stringers are mortised into the lower unit of the stern frame. These stringers are placed apart from 1 to 1¹/₄ in. The ends of each thwart are nailed upon the lower gunwale, and each is supported by an L-shaped knee cut from a naturally grown bend of sally wood, elm or oak. A horizontal L-shaped angle piece is also used to key together the joint where each of the side gunwale bars is countersunk in the end of one of the cross-bars forming the stern gunwale frame. At the fore-end the bow-gunwales, upper and lower, are each united by a countersunk joint and keyed together by a breasthook on the after side. A stout strut is fitted nearly vertical between the fore-ends of the two gunwales (Pl. VII, fig. 2).

The rowing equipment consists of a pair of rowlock cleats, 1 in, thick, fitted upon the upper gunwale abaft each thwart; a thole-pin thrust through a hole in each of these cleats is pro-vided with a socket, the "thimble", nailed below upon the lower gunwale and 15 in, abaft the thwart to which it is related. Between the rowlock cleats on each side a stout batten is nailed on the gunwale, to prevent the nets and lines from fouling the ends of the cleats. For the same reason a narrow batten is nailed obliquely across each thwart inward to the knee.

A "footstick" rests athwart the bottom, 25 in, abaft each thwart. Each end rests on a short cleat nailed across two of the ribs.

Oars. These are of the Aran Islands' pattern having a tri-angular "bull", 12 in, along the base, which is nailed to the square proximal section (2 by 2 in.) of the loom.

The height of each "bull" is 3 in. The triangular shape is adopted for reasons of economy, as several of this shape and size may be cut without waste from a 2 in. plank, 3¹/₂ in, wide.

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The length of the three pairs of oars usually carried is the same for all, 11 ft., but not so the position of the bulls. As each man rows double-handed, overlapping the grips and sits amid-ships, so the length inboard from the bull must vary with the beam at each thwart. The formula in use is to divide the beam

between opposite thole-pins by two to obtain the suitable working length from the centre of the bull to the top of the square part of the loom.

The blade is 2¹/₄ in, wide by ¹/₂ in, thick.

The crew of three occupy the first, second and fourth thwarts when net ishing, as the nets are stowed below the third thwart. Livestock is also carried in the same place, as seen in Pl. IV, fig. 2, where a hobbled cow has been stowed on a pile of seaweed in a Blasket Islands curragh for transport to the mainland.

One of these curraghs is said to be able to carry a catch of 4000 mackerel.

A steer oar is sometimes carried if a fourth man be aboard. Only at regattas in Dingle Bay are curraghs nowadays rowed four-handed.

As in Wales, the old form of bailer is a turned wooden bowl, an old tin has replaced it.

Mast and sail. All Kerry curraghs are fitted for sailing. A short mast, 10-11 ft. long, about 3 in. diameter, without shrouds, passed through the hole in the forward thwart, is stepped in a socket in a short mast shoe nailed across the eighth and ninth ribs. Through an iron ring near the masthead the halliard is rove with an iron traveller at the end. This hoists a small lug sail, lashed to a yard 9 ft. long. A sheet and a tack control its set.

When under sail one or even two comparatively large lee-boards are sometimes employed-probably a fairly recent in-novation. Length 5 ft., width 5¹/₂-6 in. Each is provided with a half loop at the upper end by which it may be hung from a thole-pin. If two are used one is slung from the second thole-pin and the other from the fourth on the lee side.

The cover takes 28 yd. of No- 7 cotton duck. When cut out and sewn together, it is put on the framework inside out, and

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coated with boiled gas-tar. When this is dry it is turned and nailed on over the frame and tarred again with hot boiled tar. Before use a coat of cold tar may be applied in addition. No pitch is mixed with the tar.

The fishermen's wives machine sew the body of the cover in transverse sections, the edges overlapped from 1 in. upwards, according to the longitudinal curvature of the hull, but in the nose section, which is bipartite, the seam running along the sharp bow edge is hand sewn by the men, for this requires very careful adjustment, and has to be done in situ.

Method of construction. No builder to-day can make better curraghs than Michael FitzGerald^? of Baile-na-nGal (Baly-david). In June I936 I was so fortunate as to find him at work on one, and the following account is that of his procedure. This may differ and probably does, in certain details, from that of others. For example, FitzGerald^? steams and bends his rib frames individually; another builder uses a bending frame in which a number are curved and set in advance.

The builder, who usually works to standardized dimensions, keeps a set of five guide blocks, called collectively the " stocks ", partially embedded in the floor of his workshop, spaced several feet apart. Near the outer end of each a stop is nailed. Six feet from the foremost one is a heavy wooden block, 16 in. high; stretching from the inner side of the stops on the foremost stock to the block is laid the bow mould-the two bow pieces from an old curragh. The main section of the lower gunwale frame, steamed to allow of bending, is now placed on the stocks and adjusted against the stops and fixed in position by trans- verse wedging bars. Work then proceeds in the following order:

(a) The stern bar is 6tted and a strengthening L-piece nailed on, at each angle.

(b) Thwarts 2, 3, and 4 are nailed in place.

(c)

The lower bow-gunwale frame is adjusted, with the apical angle secured by a breast hook.

(d) The first thwart and the mast partner are nailed on.

(e) Holes for the "standards" are bored.

Attention is next given to forming the upper gunwale frame. Although the sectional size of its scantling is the same as that

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35

of the lower gunwale, it has to be made from 2 to 4. in, wider in the beam; only two guide bars (see the Kilkee fig. I, P1. V) are employed; one is set 2 in, in front of the stern of the lower gunwale and the other over the shoulder splice.

When the frames are finished, the angle of curvature at the shoulder splice is adjusted and this fixed by means of the "splint", a locking shoulder piece.

After boring oblique holes for the standards, a temporary strut is nailed lightly some 6 ft. from the stern and another across near the shoulders.

After lifting the upper gunwale frame to one side the lower ends of the standards are driven into their holes in the lower gunwale; while doing this the after section is bent upwards a little by means of blocks placed below.

The upper gunwale frame may now be placed in position, and connected with the lower one by 6tting the upper ends of the standards into their holes in the upper gunwales.

When the thwart knees, rowlock cleats, marginal battens between the cleats, and thole-pin thimbles have been fitted, the double gunwale frame is turned over, and the ribs inserted in the slots which have previously been cut in the lower gun-wales. With the fitting of the stringers and the kelson plank the general framework is complete and may be turned right side up to permit of the fitting of the mast shoe, the foot rests and the accessory short ribs required to reinforce the bottom against the feet of the rowers (PI. VI, figs. 1 and 2).

Finally the cover is fitted on and tarred as already described.

KEELED WICKER VESSELS

The only records of hide-covered wicker vessels provided with keels are that of Caesar to which reference has already been made¹

and the representation of "A portable vessel of wicker ordinarily used by the Wild Irish", made by Captain Thomas Phillips,² preserved in the Pepysian Library, Cam-bridge.

1 "British Coracles", Part 1, in The Mariner's Mirror, January 1936.

2 Nance, R. Morton, "Wicker Vessels", The Mariner's Mirror, July 1922.

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Regarding Caesar's account, it is unlikely that he had any personal knowledge of the system followed by the Britons in the construction of their wicker curraghs. The probability is that he saw some of these vessels in use, recognized their utility for certain purposes and under certain conditions, and then, when the need arose, made his own deductions as to how they might have been built and issued his instructions accord- ingly. Any makeshift method of construction would serve his need, provided that the resultant craft would float and be capable of transporting soldiers across a river quite a short journey. Naturally he would base his building procedure upon that followed by Roman boat-builders working in wood. Once the frame, consisting of a light keel and ribs, was put together, the working or weaving in of osiers to form wicker sides in a rough and ready fashion would be comparatively simple work for men skilled in basketry. Such men, we may be sure, were available to Caesar, for Roman armies, recruited from every nation and tribe under Roman rule, included craftsmen of almost every imaginable trade. Hence I am not inclined to attach undue importance to Caesar's mention of the employ-ment of wooden keels and ribs. It seems reasonable to infer that the wicker craft which he ordered to be built were of hybrid character, combining a light wicker-and-hide cover with the boat framing familiar to his army craftsmen.

Phillips's seventeenth-century pictured representation of an Irish wooden-framed wicker vessel is also of a hybrid craft; something between a deep-sided curragh and a small plank- built sailing ship of the period. Nowhere is there any corro-borative evidence that any such design ever existed; the only description of large curragh construction in the seventeenth century, that by P. O'Sullevan, of the curragh 26 ft. long by 6 ft. beam and 5 ft. in depth, made by Dermot O'Sullivan in 1602 on the Shannon, contradicts Phillips's sketches in their entirety (see p. 29 above).

O'Sullivan's curragh was constructed bottom up, exactly as all curraghs are built at the present day; Phillips's boat is shown in his lower figure shared up on the stocks right side up. The presence of a definite rudder is another suspicious

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37

feature; curraghs are, on the contrary, always steered by paddle or oar.

Mr R. Morton Nance, who describes and figures Phillips's vessel in The Mariner's Mirror of July I922, and is inclined to accept the sketches as trustworthy, admits that "without doubting the good faith of Captain Phillips", the drawing of a killick in the picture is apparently unlike any known variety and he infers that it must have been carelessly observed. Similarly he characterizes the setting of the sail abaft the mast on the two vessels in the background as "an extraordinary expedient ".

Another fact that suggests doubt is the presence of a plank-built, punt-shaped tender towed astern of the wicker ship. We may well ask, Why is it not constructed of wicker, like the parent ship ?

The problem presented by the sketches is probably one that we shall never solve to our entire satisfaction and further space cannot be given to it here. The reader must form his own opinion after studying the sketches and comparing with the known facts concerning curragh construction, past and present.

GAELIC CURRAGH TERMS

The following terms were collected mainly in the counties of Kerry, Clare and Donegal; the particular provenance of each is indicated by a letter within brackets as follows:

General, (G); Dingle peninsula, Kerry, (K); Blasket Islands, (B); County

Clare, (C); Donegal, (D); Aran Islands (A); Anglo-Irish terms, used by English-

speaking fishermen, (A-I); pl. indicates the plural form of the term.

English term	Gaelic equivalent
The curragh itself	Curach in Donegal, Aran and Connaught; naomh6g 1 in Kerry and Clare; canoe in A-I
Stem or head	Caibin (B); tosach (K); cloigean and gob an churaigh (A)
Stern	Ball deiridh (K); deire (A and D); stiúir (B)

1 Naomhóg is pronounced naevōg. It comes from noe and nai, synonyms in Old Irish for curach, qualified by the diminutive termination óg, small. These O.L words noe and nai are cognate with the Latin navis, and from navis longa we get the Irish

long, a ship.

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English term	Gaelic equivalent
Bows	Bútaí (B)
Gunwale frame	Fráma, pl. frámaí (G)
Upper gunwale frame	Fráma uachtair (A); gunail (K)
Lower gunwale frame	Fráma íochtair (A); raoiseach (K)
Vertical strut between upper and lower gunwales	Taca, pl. tacaí (K); pluganna (A); standard (A-I)
Shoulder splint or fishbar	Clár guaileáin (C); cnámh píosa an guaileáin (B); splice tosach, A-I in Kerry
Bracing or shoulder bar (used in Iniskea)	Maide droma (Mayo); centre-stick (A-1)
Thwart	Tochta; pL tochtaí (G); seas (A)
Loose or removable thwart	Cl6rd (N. Mayo)
First thwart